03.+Theories+and+Frameworks

=Theories and Frameworks=

The following theories and frameworks are those which will be applied to the range of case studies discussed on this wiki. The summaries below are provided to support the use of said theories and frameworks in critique and application to the case studies, and also in mention in the literature review.

Situated Learning Theory
Situated Learning Theory proposes that learning is directly relational to the context in which it occurs. That is, the learning activity is ingrained in the environment and culture in which it takes place (Lave and Wenger 1991). Here we see a shift from the attitude that a concept must be approached with precision and clarity, separate from its context, to one in which all concepts are interconnected, through people, observations, environment, context and culture (Lave and Wenger 1991, p. 121).

Lave and Wenger's (1991) theory stresses the importance of examining learning as a social practice, rather than one that occurs in isolation (p. 121). The theories of Vygotsky are particularly applicable here (Vygotsky 1978; cited in Hoadley 2000), suggesting that students learn from each other, contributing ideas and knowledge as well as critiquing each other (p. 841). Lave and Wenger (1991) term this a "community of practice"; within this existing a range of values and behaviours that the new learners must observe if they want to become a "full practioner" (p. 122). They also suggest that situated learning is not always intentional - this is known as legitimate peripheral participation and "can improve understanding of a complex domain" (Lave and Wenger 1991; cited in Hoadley 2000, p. 842).

The relevance to science education here is that often, it is not situated in the context in which the knowledge should eventually be applied. Take for example a biochemistry lecture. The lecture theatre is a learning environment in which knowledge is transmitted from the teacher to the learner, and little to no social learning occurs. This is very different to the context of a laboratory, in which the theoretical knowledge is intended to be applied. The traditional laboratory class, as explained in the literature review, also falls short of properly integrating situated learning theory into its learning practices.

Constructivism
Constructivist theory is a framework proposed by Bruner which views learning as a process in which a learner will use their past knowledge to conceptualise and understand new ideas (Bruner 1966; cited in Kearsley 2009). This framework utilises a cognitive psychology of learning, which is said to allow the learner to "go beyond the information given" (Kearlsey 2009).

The main tenants of constructivism emphasise the importance of a learner's context and past experiences. Therefore any information presented to the learner must be presented in conjunction with past experiences which make the learner willing to learn (Kearsley 2009). The information or course content should also be presented in such a way that the learner is able to continually apply new information to what they have already learned, and build upon it (Kearsley 2009).

Construcvtivism is becoming particularly relevant in science, with more and more science educators incorporating this framework into their methods of teaching. As was discussed in the literature review, constructivism is becoming recognised as a method of moving away from rote learning, though it is still controversial (McLoughlin and Taji 2005, p. 2). In some institutions however, it is embraced openly. In New Zealand science education, for example, lecture demonstration tables have been removed from numerous institutions, which is intended to prevent the lecturer from influencing the way the student may construct knowledge (Cromer 1997, p. 11).

Scaffolded Knowledge Integration
Scaffolded Knowledge Integration is a particularly useful framework to examine as it was designed to enhance science education. This framework views the process of learning as adding new ideas into the range of views previously held, reflecting on how these ideas are relevant to and connect with previously held ones and ultimately forming a solidified view of the subject area (Linn //et al//. 1994; cited in Hoadley 2000). It comes from a socio-constructivist background and is based on the work of Vygotsky, emphasising collaborative and social learning (Williams and Linn, 2002, p. 418).

The scaffolded knowledge integration framework encourages thinking to be visible, with students and teachers articulating and reflecting on how they interpret new ideas and how they connect these new concepts with predefined notions (Williams and Linn, 2002, p. 418). This visibility allows students to learn from each other through peer discussion and feedback (Hoadley 2000, p. 842). It also aims to promote independent thinking to equip students to apply concepts they learn in their science education to real world concepts after they have completed their course (Williams and Linn, 2002, p. 418). This is facilitated through questioning, analysing and reflecting on new ideas and the integration of new ideas with previously held conceptions (Williams and Linn, 2002, p. 418).

Social Learning - The work of Bandura and Vygotsky
Bandura's social learning theory focuses on the importance of a learner being able to observe and model others in order to learn appropriate behaviours and attitudes towards a particular concept or situation (Bandura 1977; cited in Kearsley 2009). Social learning is applicable to both the behavioural and cognitive psychologies of learning, as it involves memory, motivation and attention (Kearsley 2009).

The process of observational learning contains 4 steps: (Bandura 1971; cited in Moore 1999). 1. Attention - paid to the behaviour being observed. 2. Retention - remembrance of the behavior being observed. 3. Reproduction - being able to reproduce an observed behaviour 4. Motivation - the reason behind reproduction of an observed behaviour.

Bandura's work also relates well to the work of Vygotsky, who discusses social development. His concept of the zone of proximal development, a level of development which increases with social interaction (Kearsley 2009) is particularly relevant to social learning theory, as Vygotsky's theory suggests that the range of skills which can be developed is increased if developed in a collaborative setting (Kearsley 2009).

Bloom’s Taxonomy
Bloom's Taxonomy aims to classify a range of attainable levels throughout the process of learning. Bloom's work focuses on the cognitive and affective domains of learning. In the cognitive domain, the levels of the taxonomy are knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis and evaluation. The affective domain is more concerned with emotions and attitudes towards knowledge (Kearsley 2009).The taxonomy is hierarchical, with a natural division into lower and higher order thinking (Forehand 2005). The relevance of Bloom's Taxonomy is that it was the first to define a framework for identifying levels of learning (Kearsley 2009). The taxonomy has gone on to become a guideline for instructional and curriculum design (Kearsley 2009).